Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703), renowned in the scientific community for introducing the term "cell," made significant contributions to the development of biology and physics (Arrimada, 2021). His career, marked by a diversity of fields including horology, microscopy, astronomy, medicine, navigation, and architecture, earned him the nickname "the English Leonardo da Vinci." Despite his valuable scientific contributions, Hooke did not receive the recognition he deserved. Additionally, he is known for his notorious feud with Isaac Newton. Arrimada (2021) mentions that this fact, along with his lack of recognition, highlights the challenges scientists sometimes face on their path to discovery and innovation.
Biography
Robert Hooke was born on July 18, 1635, on the Isle of Wight, the largest island of England (Arrimada, 2021). His parents, Cecily Gyles and John Hooke, an Anglican cleric, were forced to educate their son due to lack of financial resources to enroll him in school. Hooke's life took a dramatic turn when, at the age of 13, he lost his father. As a result, he had to work, taking his first job as an assistant to a popular portrait painter on the Isle of Wight. However, according to Arrimada (2021), the oils and varnishes used in the work caused chest irritation, leading him to abandon the position.
After leaving his job, he enrolled at Westminster School, a prestigious educational institution located in London (Arrimada, 2021). During his time there, he attended numerous meetings on science and philosophy, areas of great interest to him. Thanks to his outstanding academic performance, at the age of 18, he received a scholarship as a choirboy at Christ Church College, Oxford, which is the church of the Diocese of Oxford, belonging to the University of Oxford. There, as per Arrimada (2021), in addition to receiving a solid academic education, he had to collaborate in household chores due to his status as a scholarship student.
During those years, he focused on his academic development with the aim of improving his future (Arrimada, 2021). He began working as an assistant in a laboratory, where he stood out for a series of discoveries he made. It was at that time when he began to forge his passion for science, showing interest in a wide variety of scientific works (Arrimada, 2021). In 1661, in recognition of his abilities as a scientist, he was appointed "Curator of Experiments" at the newly founded Royal Society, which is still operational today (Sánchez Amador, 2020). The Royal Society of London is the oldest society of scientists in the United Kingdom, officially founded in 1662 (Arrimada, 2021). However, according to Arrimada (2021), even before its official foundation, the founding scientists already held regular meetings.
He was a member of the society for 40 years, starting his career as an assistant to the philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor Robert Boyle (Arrimada, 2021). His first significant work under Boyle's tutelage was the development of an air pump, designed to compress air and produce a vacuum. According to Arrimada (2021), this pump was instrumental in Boyle's conclusion of his experiment on formulating the law of gases (Boyle's Law), whose main postulate states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
In 1665, although Hooke was an astronomer, he decided to focus his attention on Earth, specifically on the invisible world (Ennis, 2015). His observations of slices of cork under his microscope revealed that they were composed of small square segments, which he called "cells," as the tiny square structures he observed reminded him of monk cells. After his discoveries, he wrote and illustrated what is considered one of the greatest books of all time: "Micrographia." The incredibly detailed drawings of insects are simply amazing and are unlikely to ever be surpassed. The book made a great impact on the world. According to Ennis (2015), Hooke's invisible world was first made visible to everyone.
The massive rebuilding revenues that followed the Great Fire of London in 1666 provided him with the financial freedom to continue his scientific efforts (Cartwright, 2023). In 1675, he participated in selecting a site for a new observatory in Greenwich, and he was also an integral part of the design stage along with Christopher Wren (1632 - 1723). Hooke ultimately supervised the long construction period of the building. Hooke and Wren had already collaborated closely on the design of the new St. Paul's Cathedral, where Hooke provided invaluable assistance in solving the problem of how to build its dome. According to Cartwright (2023), Hooke continued his involvement in London's new and dramatic skyline by designing, again with Wren, the 65-meter (202-foot) hollow column commemorating the dreadful Great Fire.
Always pragmatic in his scientific approach, he conducted experiments on gravity and air pressure from the high roof of the old St. Paul's (Cartwright, 2023). He even attempted to install a giant telescope inside the monument to the Great Fire, although unfortunately, he was not successful in this endeavor. Hooke's life came to an end on March 3, 1703, at the age of 67. Throughout his life, he never married or had children. According to Cartwright (2023), in recognition of his contributions, he was awarded a commemorative plaque at Westminster Abbey, although it was not the grand monument awarded to Newton.
Contributions to Science
Although it took three centuries after his death for historians to recognize him as "the English Leonardo da Vinci," today Robert Hooke's contributions can be summarized into two major pillars: physics and biology (Sánchez Amador, 2020). Arrimanda (2021) mentions that, in addition to the tasks he carried out as Boyle's assistant, Hooke made various significant discoveries.
Law of Elasticity
In 1665, while serving as Boyle's assistant, Hooke formulated what is now known as "Hooke's Law" (Sánchez Amador, 2020). This law, originally formulated for objects stretched longitudinally, states that the elongation of a spring is directly proportional to the magnitude of the applied force, as long as the spring is not permanently deformed (Sánchez Amador, 2020). This theory opened the door to a series of scientific studies that today allow for various predictions in the fields of engineering and physics (Arrimada, 2021). For example, when designing a bridge, one can calculate the effect that the weight of vehicles passing over it will have on the structure. Thus, according to Arrimada (2021), the necessary materials to build the bridge can be determined so that it can withstand such a load.
Capillarity
In the work published in 1665, titled "Micrographia," Hooke detailed his discoveries on capillarity (Arrimada, 2021). In it, it is explained that the height to which water, as well as other fluids, rose when exiting through narrow glass tubes was directly related to the diameter of the tube through which they passed. According to Arrimada (2021), this work not only became a scientific bestseller, being the first in history, but also was the first to show drawings of images captured with optical microscopy.
Cell Theory and Cells
Through the use of a microscope, he identified a series of small cavities with a polyhedral shape on the slide, whose appearance was remarkably similar to that of a honeycomb (Arrimada, 2021). Subsequently, he assigned the term "cell" to each of these cavities, without fully realizing the transcendental relevance that these cavities had in the constitution of living organisms. What he was actually observing were plant cells that were no longer alive. Arrimada (2021) mentions that, thanks to this observation, a few years later, the composition of the tissue of living organisms was discovered, and it also contributed to the postulation of a theory about cell organization.
Theory of Planetary Motion
Hooke is recognized as the pioneer in the construction of the Gregorian telescope (Domenech, 2019). With this instrument, he managed to observe that Mars and Jupiter rotated on their own axes (Domenech, 2019). For years, he dedicated himself to researching the theory of planetary motion, starting from a mechanical problem, and also explored the law of universal gravitation (Arrimada, 2021). Hooke's work in this field was what triggered his rivalry with Newton. This was because Newton was the one who managed to publish the necessary mathematical proof to demonstrate the theory. Additionally, there are sources that reveal that Hooke investigated the Earth's movement in the form of an ellipse around the Sun (Arrimada, 2021). Hooke is also recognized for promoting the scientific use of microscopes (Domenech, 2019). According to Domenech (2019), the illustrations in his book "Micrographia" marked the beginning of an art that would be perfected by new experts like Anton van Leeuwenhoek.
Inventions
Hooke is also recognized as a prolific inventor (Arrimada, 2021). Among his creations, instruments stand out which he designed with the aim of recording variations in weather conditions. According to Arrimada (2021), these include an alcohol thermometer, a quadrant barometer, an improved chronometer, an anemometer, a hygrometer clock, and a clock that automatically recorded readings from meteorological instruments.
Conflict with Isaac Newton
It is recognized that Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton maintained a long battle of egos to be considered the brightest scientific minds of their time (Arrimada, 2021). This competition was quite even while Hooke was alive; however, after his death, Newton continued his scientific work achieving significant advances, which allowed him to obtain greater recognition (Arrimada, 2021). According to Domenech (2019), at the peak of his career in 1679, Robert Hooke began a correspondence with Isaac Newton about gravitation, an idea that Hooke had already assumed years before.
The rivalry between them intensified following a publication by Newton in 1687 titled "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), where the universal law of gravitation was discussed (Arrimada, 2021). This scientific idea had already been researched by several scientists for years, with Hooke's contributions during the 1670s being crucial for its development. Despite this, it was Newton who managed to create the rigorous mathematical proof to demonstrate it. After Newton's theory on the law of gravity was published, Hooke became angry, claiming that he had provided the idea to Newton through the letters he wrote to him. Newton, for his part, denied that Hooke had provided him with the idea (Arrimada, 2021). According to Domenech (2019), the highest recognition he attributes is that the letters with Hooke revived his interest in astronomy but did not provide anything new.
As a result of this unpleasant conflict, the famous phrase "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants" by Newton to Hooke arises, in which it is believed that he mocks the scientist's short stature and appearance (Sánchez Amador, 2020). They also had a fairly similar conflict based on the "Corpuscular Theory" published by Newton, in which he claimed that light was composed of very small particles that moved in a straight line (Arrimada, 2021). Aside from the conflicts Robert Hooke had with Isaac Newton, there is no doubt that he was a great scientist with a brilliant mind. According to Arrimada (2021), he is a very representative figure of experimental science, considered one of the fathers of microscopy, physics, and scientific dissemination, so his figure is still remembered to this day.
The Mystery of Hooke's Portrait
Beyond the brevity of the biography, it is fascinating to discover that almost all knowledge about Robert Hooke comes from the autobiography he wrote in 1696, which, curiously, he never finished (Sánchez Amador, 2020). Robert Hooke's appearance and stature are uncertain, mainly due to the absence of preserved portraits of him (Domenech, 2019). Historically, this lack is attributed to Newton's efforts to eliminate the figure of his great rival. Domenech (2019) mentions that, according to scientific legend, Newton even obtained the only portrait of Hooke and ordered its destruction; another version maintains that he intentionally left it behind when the Royal Society moved to another building.
However, Allan Chapman, the most recent biographer of Robert Hooke and a scholar of his figure, dismisses these stories as mere myths (Domenech, 2019). Chapman, along with other historians, has made a great effort in recent years to dignify once again this great genius of science. In 2003, the painter Rita Greer undertook historical research to produce a portrait of Hooke that was faithful to the two remaining written descriptions of him. With his public image thus restored, Domenech (2019) mentions that this tribute portrait by Greer has been used to illustrate numerous articles and documentaries, finally shedding a fairer light on Hooke in the history of science.
References
Arrimada, M. (2021, diciembre 16). Robert Hooke: Diografía y Aportes de EsteInvestigador Inglés. Psicología y Mente. https://psicologiaymente.com/biografias/robert-hooke
Cartwright, M. (2023). Robert Hooke. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_Hooke/
Domenech, F. (2019, julio 31). Hooke, the Genius Whose big Mistake was Confronting Newton. OpenMind. https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/leading-figures/hooke-the-genius-whose-big-mistake-was-confronting-newton/
Ennis, P. M. (2015, marzo 29). Dr. Robert Hooke. Historic UK. https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/Dr-Robert-Hooke/
Sánchez Amador, S. A. (2020, octubre 18). Robert Hooke: Biografía y Resumen de sus Aportes a la Ciencia. Médico Plus. https://medicoplus.com/biografias/robert-hooke
